A Review of Primate Research and Conservation in Sarawak, Malaysia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10023073Keywords:
Sarawak primates, Primate research, Conservation, Threats, Endangered speciesAbstract
Sarawak is home to a diverse array of primate species in Malaysia, i.e., 14 species from five families. Over the years, many studies on primates’ behavior, ecology and conservation have been conducted in Sarawak. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of previous primate studies in Sarawak from 1960 to 2022 and discuss primates' threats, conservation status, and initiatives. Despite the vast number of these primate studies, the majority of them only focus on proboscis monkeys (n=24) and orangutans (n=21) and lack comprehensive studies that cover all primate species in Sarawak. Studies on ecology and natural history were the most prevalent for all Sarawak primate genera (n=51), accounting for more than half of publications. Thus, it advocates a more holistic approach to fill the knowledge gaps and meet conservation needs. Conservation efforts are urgently needed to protect primates currently threatened by deforestation, habitat fragmentation, hunting, and illegal trade. However, conservation efforts may be restrained by the limited information on primates in Sarawak. To preserve the primates in Sarawak, a robust protection strategy that synergizes the participation of government authorities, non-government organizations, and local communities needs to be developed.
References
Abdullah, M.T. (1999). Observations and conservation of mammals in Kubah National Parks, Malaysia. [Unpublished report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak].
Abdullah, S. A., & Nakagoshi, N. (2007). Landscape ecological approach in oil palm land use planning and management for forest conservation in Malaysia. Landscape ecological applications in man-influenced areas: Linking man and nature systems, 179-191.
Adrus, M., Zainuddin, R., Khairi, N. H. A., Ahamad, M., & Abdullah, M. T. (2019). Helminth parasites occurrence in wild proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus), endemic primates to Borneo Island. Journal of Medical Primatology, 48(6), 357–363. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmp.12437
Ag-Tuah, A. M. H. (2015). Detection of Campylobacter spp. in Silvered Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus cristatus). [Final Year Project Report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]. UNIMAS Institutional Repositor]. http://ir.unimas.my/id/eprint/32856
Aifat, N. R., Yaakop, S., & Md-Zain, B. M. (2016). Ancient DNA analyses of museum specimens from selected Presbytis (primate: Colobinae) based on partial Cyt b sequences. AIP Conference Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4966862
Alamgir, M., Campbell, M. J., Sloan, S., Engert, J., Word, J., & Laurance, W. F. (2020). Emerging challenges for sustainable development and forest conservation in Sarawak, Borneo. PLOS ONE, 15(3), e0229614. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229614
Amano, N., Wang, Y. V., Boivin, N., & Roberts, P. (2021). ‘Emptying Forests?’ Conservation Implications of Past Human–Primate Interactions. Trends in Ecology &Amp; Evolution, 36(4), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2020.12.004
Ampeng, A. (2007). Ekologi dan kelakuan lotong penatat, Presbytis melalophos chrysomelas di sanktuari hidupan liar Samunsam, Sarawak. [Bachelor Thesis, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia].
Ampeng, A., & Md-Zain, B. M. (2012). Ranging patterns of critically endangered colobine, Presbytis chrysomelas chrysomelas. The Scientific World Journal, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/594382
Ampeng, A., Liam, J., Simpson, B., Traelholt, C., Nor, S. M., Abdan-Saleman, M. S. B., Osman, S., Zakaria, S. A., & Md-Zain, B. M. (2021). First Bornean orangutan sighting in Usun Apau National Park, Sarawak. Biodiversity Data Journal, 9, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.9.E60753
Ampeng, A., Shukor, M. N., Sahibin, A. R., Idris, W. M. R., Ahmad, S., Mohammad, H., Madeline, G. P., Ali, N., Bujang, M., Hashim, I., Bujang, A., & Md-Zain, B. M. (2016). Patterns of mineral lick use by Northwest Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) in the Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak, Malaysia. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 62(1), 147–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-015-0983-8
Ancrenaz, M., Gumal, M., Marshall, A.J., Meijaard, E., Wich, S.A. & Husson, S. (2016a). Pongo pygmaeus (errata version published in 2018). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T17975A123809220. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T17975A17966347.en. Accessed on 10 February 2023.
Ancrenaz, M., Gumal, M., Marshall, A.J., Meijaard, E., Wich, S.A. & Husson, S. (2016b). Pongo pygmaeus ssp. pygmaeus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T39781A17990445. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T39781A17990445.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Ang, A., Traeholt, C. & Setiawan, A. (2020). Trachypithecus cristatus ssp. cristatus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T136914A17988430. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T136914A17988430.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Aziz, A. F. & Mohd-Azlan, J. (2022). ¬The distribution, abundance, and community perception of Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus) in Limbang Mangrove National Park, Sarawak. Malayan Nature Journal 2022, 74(2). 155-168.
Aziz, A. F. (2019). Population estimation of proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) in Sarawak, Malaysia. [Masters Thesis, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]
Aziz, A. F., & Laman, C. J. M. (2018). Population Estimation of Proboscis Monkeys in Mangroves at Kuching Wetland National Park, Sarawak. Borneo Journal of Resource Science and Technology, 8(2), 84-89
Aziz, A. F., Laman, C. J. M., & Azman, M. S. (2015). Past and Present Population Estimation of Proboscis Monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) at Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. Proceeding of the Regional Taxonomy and Ecology Conference 2015 (TEC 2015). 341-348. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328782545
Bartlett, T.Q. (2007). The Hylobatidae: Small Apes of Asia. In: C.J. Campbell, A. Fuentes, M. Panger and S.K. Bearder (eds), Primates in Perspective. 274-289. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Bennett, E. L & Rajaratnam, R. (1990). Notes on the social behaviour of wild proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus). Malayan Nature Journal.
Bennett, E. L. (1987). Proboscis monkeys in Sarawak: Their ecology, status, conservation and management. WWF-Malaysia/NYZS. Kuala Lumpur.
Bennett, E. L. (2002). Is there a link between wild meat and food security? Conservation Biology, 16(3). 590-592.
Bennett, E. L., & Gumal, M. T. (2001). The inter-relationships of commercial logging, hunting, and wildlife in Sarawak, and recommendations for forest management. In Fimbel, R. A., Grajal, A., Robinson, J. G. (Eds). The cutting edge: conserving wildlife in logged tropical forest. New York: Columbia University Press. 359-374.
Bennett, E. L., & Rajaratnam, R. (1992). Ecology and conservation of proboscis monkey in Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak. In Forest Biology and Conservation in Borneo. Yayasan Sabah, Centre for Borneo Studies
Bennett, E. L., & Sebastian, A. C. (1988). Social Organization and Ecology of Proboscis Monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) in Mixed Coastal Forest in Sarawak. International Journal of Primatology, 9(3). 233-255.
Bennett, J. & Gombek, F. (1993). Proboscis Monkeys of Borneo. Natural History Publications (Borneo) Sdn. Bhd. & Koktas Sabah, Ranau, Sabah, Malaysia.
Bennett, J. (1989a). Final Report on Semengok Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre. In Unpublished Report for the National Parks and Wildlife Office, Sarawak Forest Department.
Bennett, J. (1989b). The confiscated primate dilemma in Sarawak. Australian Primatology, 4(1), 6–8.
Bennett, J. (1992). A glut of gibbons in Sarawak – is rehabilitation the answer? Oryx, 26(3), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300023590
Bigoni, F., Stanyon, R., Wimmer, R. & Schempp, W. (2003). Chromosome Painting Shows That the Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus) Has A Derived Karyotype and is Phylogenetically Nested Within Asian Colobines. American Journal of Primatology. 60. 85-93.
Blairs, M. E., Sterling, E. J., & Hurley, M. M. (2011). Taxonomy and Conservation of Vietnam’s Primates: A Review. American Journal of Primatology, 73. 1093-1106.
Blouch, R. A. (1997). Distribution and abundance of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and other primates in the Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak, Malaysia. Tropical Biodiversity, 4(3): 259-274.
Brandon-Jones, D., Eudey, A. A., Geissmann, T., Groves, C. P., Melnick, D. J., Morales, J. C., Shekelle, M., & Stewart, C.B. (2004). Asian Primate Classification. International Journal of Primatology, 25(1).
Brodie, J. F., Giordano, A. J., Zipkin, E. F., Bernard, H., Mohd-Azlan, J., & Ambu, L. (2014). Correlation and persistence of hunting and logging impacts on tropical rainforest mammals. Conservation Biology, 29(1), 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12389
Brühl, C. A., Eltz, T., & Linsenmair, K. E. (2003). Size does matter–effects of tropical rainforest fragmentation on the leaf litter ant community in Sabah, Malaysia. Biodiversity & Conservation, 12, 1371-1389.
Bryan, J. E., Shearman, P. L., Asner, G. P., Knapp, D. E., Aoro, G., & Lokes, B. (2013). Extreme Differences in Forest Degradation in Borneo: Comparing Practices in Sarawak, Sabah, and Brunei. PLoS ONE, 8(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069679
Budeng, B. (2014). Behavioural Activities and Foraging Ecology of Proboscis Monkey in Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo). [Final Report. PSGB: London].
Caldecott, J. (1992). Hunting pattern and their significance in Sarawak. In: Ismail, G., Mohamed, M., Omar, S. (Eds.), Forest Biology and Conservation in Borneo. Center for Borneo Studies Publication No. 2. Kota Kinabalu
Campbell, C., Andayani, N., Cheyne, S. M., Pamungkas, J., Manullang, B., Usman, F. and Traylor-Holzer, K. (2008). Indonesian Gibbon Conservation and Management Workshop Final Report. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, Minnesota.
Campbell, C.O., Cheyne, S.M. and Rawson, B. (2015). Best Practice Guidelines for the Rehabilitation and Translocation of Gibbons. Gland, Switzerland.
Caton, J. M. (1999). Digestive strategy of the Asian colobine genus Trachypithecus. Primates, 40(2), 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02557555
Chapman, C. A., & Peres, C. A. (2021). Primate conservation: Lessons learned in the last 20 years can guide future efforts. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 30(5), 345–361. https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21920
Cheyne, S. M., Gilhooly, L. J., Hamard, M. C., Hoing, A., Houlihan, P. R., Kursani and Limin, S. H. (2016). Population mapping of gibbon density and vegetation across the species' range. Endangered Species Research, 30(1): 133-143.
Cheyne, S., Ehlers-Smith, D.A., Nijman, V. & Traeholt, C. (2020b). Presbytis rubicunda. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T18131A17953935. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T18131A17953935.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Cheyne, S., Traeholt, C., Setiawan, A., Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E. (2020a). Presbytis frontata. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T18127A17954836. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T18127A17954836.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Cheyne, S.M. & Nijman, V. (2020). Hylobates abbotti. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T39889A17990882. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T39889A17990882.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Clements G.R., Lynam A.J., Gaveau D., Yap W.L., Lhota S., Goosem M., Laurance S., Laurance W.F. (2014). Where and how are roads endangering mammals in Southeast Asia's forests? PloS ONE 9(12), e115376. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0115376
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). (2022). Home page. Retrieved from https://www.cites.org/eng.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). (2022). Appendices I, II, and III [List]. Retrieved from CITES website: https://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php.
Dahaban, Z., Nordin, M., & Bennett, E. L. (1996). Immediate effects on wildlife of selective logging in a hill dipterocarp forest in Sarawak: mammals. Monographiae Biologicae, 341–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1685-2_34
Duckworth, J. W., Sebastian, A. C., Kelsh, R. N., & Brandon-Jones, D. (2011). On the apparent occurrence of Hose's Surili Presbytis hosei in Similajau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. Asian Primate Journal, 2(1), 29-35.
Ehlers Smith, D. A. (2014). The effects of land-use policies on the conservation of Borneo’s endemic Presbytis monkeys. Biodiversity and Conservation, 23(4), 891–908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-014-0639-0
Estrada, A., Garber, P. A., Mittermeier, R. A., Wich, S. A., Gouveia, S. F., Dobrovolski, R., Nekaris, K., Nijman, V., Rylands, A. B., Maisels, F., Williamson, E. A., Bicca-Marques, J. C., Fuentes, A., Jerusalinsky, L., Johson, S. E., De Melo, F. R., Oliveira, L. C., Schwitzer, C., Roos, C., … Setiawan, A. (2018). Primates in peril: the significance of Brazil, Madagascar, Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo for global primate conservation. PeerJ, 6, e4869. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4869
Estrada, A., Garber, P. A., Rylands, A. B., Roos, C., Fernandez-Duque, E., Di Fiore, A., Nekaris, K. a. I., Nijman, V., Heymann, E. W., Lambert, J. E., Rovero, F., Barelli, C., Setchell, J. M., Gillespie, T. R., Mittermeier, R. A., Arregoitia, L. V., De Guinea, M., Gouveia, S., Dobrovolski, R., . . . Li, B. (2017). Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates: Why primates matter. Science Advances, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1600946
Forest Department Sarawak (FDS). (2023). Official Website of Forest Department Sarawak. Retrieved from https://forestry.sarawak.gov.my/.
Gumal, M. (2007). Densities of Orangutans Nests in Batang Ai National Park, Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary and the Proposed Ulu Sebuyau National Park. Hornbill, 9. 177-200.
Gurmaya, K.J. & Silang, S. (2002). Development of Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary as a totally protected area. Phase III. ITTO Project PD 16/99 Rev.2 (F): A study of habitat conditions, populations, and distribution of orangutan in Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Santuray and Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. International Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama, Japan and Forest Department Sarawak. Malaysia.
Hale, V. L., Tan, C. L., Niu, K., Yang, Y., Knight, R., Zhang, Q., Cui, D., & Amato, K. R. (2018). Diet Versus Phylogeny: A Comparison of Gut Microbiota in Captive Colobine Monkey Species. Microbial Ecology, 75(2), 515–527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-017-1041-8
Hansen, M.F., Ang, A., Trinh, T.T.H., Sy, E., Paramasivam, S., Dimalibot, J., Jones-Engel, L., Ruppert, N., Griffioen, C., Gray, R., Phiapalath, P., Doak, N., Kite, S., Nijman, V., Fuentes, A. & Gumert, M.D. (2022). Macaca fascicularis ssp. fascicularis (amended version of 2022 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022: e.T195351957A221668305. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-2.RLTS.T195351957A221668305.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Harrisson, T. (1961). The threats to rare animals in Borneo. Oryx, 6. 126-128.
Hatta-Ramlee. (2011). Distribution, ecology and systematics of Presbytis hosei and other leaf monkey species in North Borneo. [Doctoral Thesis, The Australian National University].
Hendry, A. P., Lohman, L. G., Conti, E., Cracraft, J., Crandall, K. A., Faith, D. P., Hauser, C., Joly, C. A., Kogure, K., Larigauderie, A., Magallon, S., Moritz, C., Tilier, S., Zardoya, R., Prieur-Richard, A., Walther, B. A., Yahara, T., & Donoghue, M. J. (2010). Evolutionary biology in biodiversity science, conservation, and policy: call to action. Evolution, 64. 1517-1528.
Hitchner, S. L., Apu, F. L., Tarawe, L., Galih@Sinah Nabun Aran, S., & Yesaya, E. (2009). Community-based transboundary ecotourism in the Heart of Borneo: a case study of the Kelabit Highlands of Malaysia and the Kerayan Highlands of Indonesia. Journal of Ecotourism, 8(2), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/14724040802696064
Ho, L. (2013). Molecular phylogenetic and evolution of Malaysian primates with an emphasis on the phylogeography of Malaysia Bornean Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus). [Masters thesis, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]. UNIMAS Institutional Repository. http://ir.unimas.my/id/eprint/10932
Hon, J., & Shibata, S. (2013). A Review on Land Use in the Malaysian State of Sarawak, Borneo and Recommendations for Wildlife Conservation Inside Production Forest Environment. Borneo Journal of Resource Science and Technology, 3(2).
Horowitz, L. S. (1998). Integrating indigenous resource management with wildlife conservation: a case study of Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. Human Ecology, 26(3), 371–403. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018752115074
Husen, A. Z. (2001). Foraging ecology of semi-wild orangutan at Semenggoh Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre, Sarawak. [Final Year Project, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak].
IUCN. (2022). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2022-2. https://www.iucnredlist.org. (Accessed on 08 December 2022).
Jamhuri, J., Edinoor, M. A., Kamarudin, N., Lechner, A. M., Ashton-Butt, A., & Azhar, B. (2020). Higher mortality rates for large- and medium-sized mammals on plantation roads compared to highways in Peninsular Malaysia. Ecology and Evolution, 10(21), 12049–12058. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6827
Khan, F. A. A., Mazlan, N., Aziz, A. F., Adrus, M., Abang-Imran, A. A., Gumal, M., Zaini, M. K., Silang, S., & Denel, A. (2021). Sarawak Proboscis monkey Action Plan 2021-2025. Sarawak Forestry Corporation, Sarawak, Malaysia.
Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385
Koh, W. & Rashid, Y.N. (2020). Ethnoprimatology: Human-macaque interface in the University of Malaya campus. Malaysian Journal of Science, 39(3), 17–44. doi: 10.22452/mjs.vol39no3.2
Kombi, M. & Abdullah, M. T. (2013). Ethogram of free-ranging Nasalis larvatus in Bako National Park, Sarawak. Malayan Nature Journal, 65(2&3), 1-21.
Kombi, M. & Abdullah, M. T. (2016). A Review of the Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus) in Borneo, with Reference to the Population in Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Tropical Natural History, 16(1).
Laman, C. J. M., & Aziz, A. F. (2019). Population estimation of Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) with new analysis based on forest types in Sarawak, Malaysia Borneo. Journal of Sustainability Science and Management, 14(2), 91-101.
Laman, C. J. M., Aziz, M. F. I. A., & Abdullah, M. T. (2007). Ethological pattern of silvered leaf langur (Presbytis cristata) at Bako National Park. Research Bulletin Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, 4(4).
Lappan, S., & Ruppert, N. (2019). Primate research and conservation in Malaysia. CABI Reviews, 2019, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1079/pavsnnr201914004
Laurance W.F., Goosem M., Laurance S.G.W. (2009). Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 24(12), 659-669. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.06.009
Lee, C. H. (2015). Gastrointestinal Parasites Study of Silvered Leaf-Monkey (Trachypithecus cristatus). [Final Year Project Report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]. UNIMAS Institutional Repositor. http://ir.unimas.my/id/eprint/34302
Lhota, S., Sha, J. C. M., Bernard, H., & Matsuda, I. (2019). Proboscis Monkey Conservation. Primate Research and Conservation in the Anthropocene, 182–196. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316662021.011
Madani, G., & Nekaris, K. A. I. (2014). Anaphylactic shock following the bite of a wild Kayan slow loris (Nycticebus kayan): Implications for slow loris conservation. Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1678-9199-20-43
Marshall, A. J., Lacy, R., Ancrenaz, M., Byers, O., Husson, S. J., Leighton, M., Meijaard, E., Rosen, N., Singleton, I., Stephens, S., Traylor-Holzer, K., Utami Atmoko, S. S., Van Schaik, C. P., & Wich, S. A. (2008). Orangutan population biology, life history, and conservation. Orangutans, 311–326. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199213276.003.0022
Mazlan, N. (2021). Population Genetics Structure and Gut Microbiome Metagenomics Analyses of the Endangered Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus) in Malaysian Borneo. [Masters thesis, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]. UNIMAS Institutional Repository. http://ir.unimas.my/id/eprint/35275
Mazlan, N., Abd-Rahman, M. R., Tingga, R. C. T., Abdullah, M. T., & Khan, F. A. A. (2019). Population Genetics Analyses of the Endangered Proboscis Monkey from Malaysian Borneo. Folia Primatologica, 90(3), 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1159/000496022
Md-Zain, B. M., Mohhoyua, K. S., Aifat, N. R., Ngadi, E., Ayob, N., Rovie-Ryan, J. J., Ampeng, A., Mohd-Ridwan, A. R., Blair, M. E., & Abdul-Latiff, M. A. B. (2019). Molecular data confirm the presence of Nycticebus bengalensis on Langkawi Island, Malaysia. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity, 20(4), 1115–1120. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d200424
Meijaard, E. & Nijman, V. (2020). Trachypithecus cristatus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T22035A17959977. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T22035A17959977.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Meijaard, E., & Nijman, V. (2003). Primate Hotspots on Borneo: Predictive Value for General Biodiversity and the Effects of Taxonomy. Conservation Biology, 17(3).
Meredith, M. E. (1993). A faunal survey of Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. The Sarawak Museum Journal ,48(69), 133-155.
Meyer, D., Rinaldi, I. D., Ramlee, H., Perwitasari-Farajallah, D., Hodges, J. K., & Roos, C. (2011). Mitochondrial phylogeny of leaf monkeys (genus Presbytis, Eschscholtz, 1821) with implications for taxonomy and conservation. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 59(2), 311–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2011.02.015
Miard, P., Nekaris, K. A. I., & Ramlee, H. (2017). Hiding in the dark: Local ecological knowledge about slow loris in Sarawak sheds light on relationships between human populations and wild animals. Human Ecology, 45(6), 823–831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-017-9954-x
Milner-Gulland, E. J., Bennett, E. L., Abernethy, K., Bakarr, M., Bennett, E., Bodmer, R., Brashares, J., Cowlishaw, G., Elkan, P., Eves, H., Fa, J., Peres, C., Roberts, C., Robinson, J., Rowcliffe, M., & Wilkie, D. (2003). Wild meat: The bigger picture. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 18(7). 351–357. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00123-X
Mohd-Azlan, J., & Engkamat, L. (2006). Camera trapping and conservation in Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 54(2), 469–475.
Mohd-Azlan, J., & Engkamat, L. (2013). Camera trapping and conservation in Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak, Borneo. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 61(1), 397–405.
Mohd-Azlan, J., & Kaicheen, S. S. (2022). Community structures of mid-sized to large-bodied mammals in tropical lowland and lower montane forests in Gunung Pueh National Park, Western Sarawak, Borneo. Nature Conservation Research, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.24189/ncr.2022.009
Mohd-Azlan, J., & Lawes, M. (2011). The Efficacy of Protected Areas and Future Challenges for Wildlife Conservation in Sarawak. In RIMBA2 Regional Sustainable Development in Malaysia and Australia (pp. 136-148). Insitute for Environment and Development Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Mohd-Azlan, J., Hidayah, N., Syaza, J. T., Alek, T. A., Lading, E., Nuriza, A. S., Ramlah, Z., & Brodie, J. F. (2018a). Camera trapping of terrestrial animals in Tanjung Datu National Park, Sarawak, Borneo. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 66, 587–594.
Mohd-Azlan, J., Kaicheen, S. S., & Yoong, W. C. (2018b). Distribution, relative abundance, and occupancy of selected mammals along paved road in Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Borneo. Nature Conservation Research, 3(2), 36–46. https://doi.org/10.24189/ncr.2018.028
Mohd-Azlan, J., Kaicheen, S. S., Lok, L., & Lawes, M. J. (2019). The role of forest fragments in small mammal conservation in an oil palm plantation in northern Sarawak, Borneo. Journal of Oil Palm Research, 31(3), 422–436. https://doi.org/10.21894/jopr.2019.0034
Mohd-Azlan, J., Kaicheen, S. S., Shen, T. D., Mohd-Fauzi, N. S., Maiwald, M. J., Nyaseng, T. A., & Hong, L. L. C. (2022). Large Mammals. In J. Mohd-Azlan, A. A. Abang-Imran, & I. Das (Eds.), Samunsam: Wilderness Rediscovered (pp. 91–100). UNIMAS Publisher, Sarawak Forestry Corporation and Natural History Publications (Borneo) Sdn. Bhd.
Mohd-Azlan, J., Lok, L., Maiwald, M. J., Fazlin, S., Shen, T. D., Kaicheen, S. S., & Dagang, P. (2020). The distribution of medium to large mammals in Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak in relation to the newly constructed Pan-Borneo Highway. Nature Conservation Research, 5(4), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.24189/ncr.2020.055
Mohd-Azlan, J., Messerli, Z. & Yi, M. C. K. (2017). Habitat occupancy and activity patterns of the long-tailed macaques and pig-tailed macaques in Sarawak, Borneo. Malayan Nature Journal, 69, 277–285.
Mohd-Azlan, J., Pail, T., & Silang, S. (2015). A Preliminary Study of Fruit Handing by Captive Bornean Orangutans Pongo pygmaeus and The Effects on Seed Germination. Asian Primates Journal, 5(1), 40-44.
Mohd-Hatta, M. R. (2005) Activity patterns and food preferences of orang-utan in captivity and semi-wild state. [Masters thesis, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]. UNIMAS Institutional Repository. http://ir.unimas.my/id/eprint/24384
Mohd-Izhar, A. (2006). Population estimation of long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and silvered leaf langur (Presbytis cristata) at Telok Assam, Bako National Park. [Final Year Project Report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]
Mohd-Rahmantullah, M. H. (2001). Nesting ecology of semi-wild orangutans at Semenggoh Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre, Sarawak. [Final Year Report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]
Munds, R. A., Nekaris, K. A. I., & Ford, S. M. (201). Taxonomy of the Bornean Slow Loris, With New Species Nycticebus kayan (Primates, Lorisidae). American Journal of Primatology, 75(1), 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22071
Nada-Raja, T., Hu, T. H., Zainudin, R., Lee, K. S., Perkins, S. L., & Singh, B. (2018). Malaria parasites of long-tailed macaques in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo: A novel species and demographic and evolutionary histories. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 18(1). BioMed Central Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-018-1170-9
Nada-Raja, T., Kadir, K. A., Divis, P. C. S., Mohamad, D. S. A., Matusop, A., & Singh, B. (2022). Macaca fascicularis and Macaca nemestrina infected with zoonotic malaria parasites are widely distributed in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Scientific Reports, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-14560-9
Naharuddin, N. M. (2017). An Ecological and Molecular Study of Elusive Western Tarsier Cephalopachus bancanus in Malaysian Borneo. [Masters thesis, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]. UNIMAS Institutional Repository. http://ir.unimas.my/id/eprint/23940
Nekaris, K. A. I., Miard, P., & Streicher, U. (2020). Nycticebus menagensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T163013860A17970781. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T163013860A17970781.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Nekaris, K.A.I. & Miard, P. (2020). Nycticebus kayan. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T163015583A163015849. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T163015583A163015849.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Niemitz, C. (1973a). Field research on the Horsfield’s tarsier (Tarsius bancanus) at Sarawak Museum. Borneo Research Bulletin, 5, 61-63.
Niemitz, C. (1973b). Tarsius bancanus (Horsfields tarsier) preying on snakes. Laboratory Primates Newsletter, 12. 18-19.
Niemitz, C. (1974). A contribution to the postnatal behavioural development of Tarsius bancanus, Horsfield, 1891, studied in two cases. Folia Primatologica, 21(3-4), 250–276.
Niemitz, C. (1979). Results of a field study on the Western tarsier (Tarsius bancanus). The Sarawak Museum Journal, 27(48), 171-229.
Nightingale, N. (1981). A report of the ranging behavior of the proboscis monkey in Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak. (Unpublished report) Oxford University, Oxford.
Nijman, V. (2005). Decline of the endemic Hose’s langur Presbytis hosei in Kayan Mentarang National Park, East Borneo. Oryx, 39(2), 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605305000475
Nijman, V., Cheyne, S. & Traeholt, C. (2020a). Hylobates funereus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T39890A17990856. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T39890A17990856.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Nijman, V., Cheyne, S., Traeholt, C. & Setiawan, A. (2020). Presbytis chrysomelas. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T39803A17955321. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T39803A17955321.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Nijman, V., Traeholt, C., Setiawan, A. & Cheyne, S. (2021). Presbytis hosei (amended version of 2020 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T175648870A195370322. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T175648870A195370322.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Normaisharah, M. (2017). Population Density of Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) at Samajaya Nature Reserve, Kuching, Malaysia. [Final Year Project Report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]
Pandong, J., Gumal, M., Alen, L., Sidu, A., Ng, S., & Koh, L. P. (2018). Population estimates of Bornean orang-utans using Bayesian analysis at the greater Batang Ai-Lanjak-Entimau landscape in Sarawak, Malaysia. Scientific Reports, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-33872-3
Pandong, J., Gumal, M., Aton, Z. M., Sabki, M. S., & Koh, L. P. (2019). Threats and lessons learned from past orangutan conservation strategies in Sarawak, Malaysia. Biological Conservation, 234, 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.03.016
Ramlee, H. (2006). Re-introduction of gibbons in Sarawak, Malaysia. Re-Introduction News, 25, 48–49.
Renitha, R. (2022). PCR optimisation of newly designed complete mitochondrial DNA control region primers for species identification and genetic variants of the neglected gibbons of Sarawak. [Final Year Project Report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]. UNIMAS Institutional Repository. http://ir.unimas.my/id/eprint/39737
Roos, C., Boonratana, R., Supriatna, J., Fellowes, J. R., Groves, C.P., Nash, S.D., Rylands, B. & Mittermeier, R. A. (2014). An updated taxonomy and conservation status review of Asian primates. Asian Primates Journal, 4. 2–38.
Ruppert, N., Holzner, A., Hansen, M.F., Ang, A. & Jones-Engel, L. (2022). Macaca nemestrina. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022: e.T12555A215350982. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T12555A215350982.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Ruslin, F., Matsuda, I., & Md-Zain, B. M. (2019). The feeding ecology and dietary overlap in two overlaps in two sympatric primate species, the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and dusky langur (TracgypithecusTrachypithecus obscurus obscurus), in Malaysia. Primates, 60(1), 41-50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-018-00705-w
Sahimi, H. N. M., Chubo, J. K., Mohd. Top Mohd. Tah, M., Saripuddin, N. B., & Rahim, S. S. A. (2018). The distribution and population density of Bornean tarsier, “Tarsius bancanus borneanus (Elliot)” in secondary and rehabilitated forests of Universiti Putra Malaysia, Bintulu Sarawak campus, Sarawak, Malaysia. Tropical Life Sciences Research, 29(1), 139–154. https://doi.org/10.21315/tlsr2018.29.1.10
Sahmat, N. S. & Mohd-Azlan, J. (2022). The utilisation, perceptions and awareness of Melanau communities on wildlife in Rajang area, Sarawak, Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal, 74(2). 189-204.
Salina, A., Salim, N. B., Rasedee, A., Senthilvel, K. S. S. N., Iskandar, C. T. N. F., Hassan, L., ... & Khan, M. A. K. G. (2004). A field study on social behaviour, feeding regime and health status in semi-captive and free-ranging orang utans (Pongo pygmaeus) undergoing rehabilitation programme. In The 11th International Conference of The Association of Institutions for Tropical Veterinary Medicine (p. 378- 383).
Salter, R. & MacKenzie, N. (1985). Conservation status of proboscis monkey in Sarawak. Biology Conservation 33. 119-132.
Salter, R. E., Mackenzie, N. A., Aken, K. M., Parks, S. N., Office, W., & Chai, P. (1985). Habitat Use, Ranging Behaviour, and Food Habits of the Proboscis Monkey, Nasalis larvatus (van Wurmb), in Sarawak. PRIMATES, 26(4).
Santika, T., Ancrenaz, M., Wilson, K. A., Spehar, S., Abram, N., Banes, G. L., Campbell-Smith, G., Curran, L., D’Arcy, L., Delgado, R. A., Erman, A., Goossens, B., Hartanto, H., Houghton, M., Husson, S. J., Kühl, H. S., Lackman, I., Leiman, A., Llano Sanchez, K., . . . Meijaard, E. (2017). First integrative trend analysis for a great ape species in Borneo. Scientific Reports, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04435-9
Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC). (2022). Homepage - Sarawak Forestry Corporation. Sarawak Forestry Corporation - Parks and Wildlife. https://sarawakforestry.com/
Schaller, G. B. (1961). The Orangutan in Sarawak. Zoologica. 46 (6): 73.
Setiawan, A., Nugroho, T. S., Djuwantoko, & Pudyatmoko, S. (2009). A survey of Miller’s Grizzled Surili, Presbytis hosei canirus, in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Primate Conservation, 24. 139-143.
Shanahan, M. & Debski, I. (2002). Vertebrates of Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak. Malayan Nature Journal, 56(1).
Shanahan, M., Harrison, R. D., Hart, S., Storey, M., & Allaman-Ward, P. (2000). Vertebrate Fauna of the Proposed Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak: Findings of a Malaysian Nature Society Expedition. Malayan Nature Journal, 54(4), 329–340.
Shekelle, M. & Yustian, I. (2020). Cephalopachus bancanus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T21488A17976989.https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T21488A17976989.en. (Accessed on 07 December 2022).
Shook, B., Nelson, K., & Aguilera, K. (2019). Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology (Illustrated). American Anthropological Association.
Silang, S., Laman, C.J. & Demies, M. (2006). Orangutan Habitat Monitoring: Fruit Trees for Orangutan in Batang Ai National Park. Hornbill, 8. 177 - 189.
Silang, S., Tisen, O. B., Chung, W. T., & Sundram, K. (2016). The Terrestrial Fauna Composition of The Peat Swamp Forest of Ulu Sebuyau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. 15th International Peat Congress 2016, 243–247.
Sloan, S., Campbell, M. J., Alamgir, M., Lechner, A. M., Engert, J., & Laurance, W. F. (2019). Trans-national conservation and infrastructure development in the Heart of Borneo. PLOS ONE, 14(9), e0221947. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221947
Stark, D. J., Vaughan, I. P., Evans, L. J., Kler, H., & Goossens, B. (2017a). Combining drones and satellite tracking as an effective tool for informing policy change in riparian habitats: a proboscis monkey case study. Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation, 4(1), 44–52. https://doi.org/10.1002/rse2.51
Stark, D. J., Vaughan, I. P., Ramirez Saldivar, D. A., Nathan, S. K. S. S., & Goossens, B. (2017b). Evaluating methods for estimating home ranges using GPS collars: A comparison using proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus). PLOS ONE, 12(3), e0174891. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174891
Stone, R. (2007). Last-gasp effort to save Borneo’s tropical rainforests. Science, 317(5835), 192-192.
Tamrin, N. A. M., Zainudin, R., Esa, Y., Alias, H., Isa, M. N. M., Croft, L., & Abdullah, M. T. (2020). New insights on the evolution of the sweet taste receptor of primates adapted to harsh environments. Animals, 10(12), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10122359
Teo, S. Z., Tuen, A. A., Madinah, A., Aban, S., & Chong, Y. L. (2019). Occurrence of gastrointestinal nematodes in captive non-human primates at Matang Wildlife Centre, Sarawak. Tropical Biomedicine, 36(3), 594-603.
Thayaparan, S., Robertson, I. D., & Abdullah, M. T. (2014). Leptospiral agglutinins in captive and free ranging non-human primates in Sarawak, Malaysia. Veterinary World, 7(6), 428–431. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2014.428-431
Tisen, O. B., & Silang, S. (2016). Orangutan Conservation in Sarawak, Malaysia. 15th International Peat Congress 2016, 238–242.
Tsuyuki S., Goh M.H., Teo S., Kamlun K., Phua M. 2011. Monitoring deforestation in Sarawak, Malaysia using multitemporal Landsat data. Kanto Forest Research 62. 87–90
Tuen, A. A. & Pandong, J. J. G. (2007). Habitat use and population density of Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) at Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak. Malayan Nature Journal, 59(3), 269-279.
Utap, M. S., & Jamal, M. S. B. M. (2019). Anaphylactic shock following a bite of a wild Kayan slow loris (Nycticebus kayan) in rural Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Rural and Remote Health. https://doi.org/10.22605/rrh5163
Voigt, M., Wich, S. A., Ancrenaz, M., Meijaard, E., Abram, N., Banes, G. L., Campbell-Smith, G., D’Arcy, L. J., Delgado, R. A., Erman, A., Gaveau, D., Goossens, B., Heinicke, S., Houghton, M., Husson, S. J., Leiman, A., Sanchez, K. L., Makinuddin, N., Marshall, A. J., . . . Kühl, H. S. (2018). Global Demand for Natural Resources Eliminated More Than 100,000 Bornean Orangutans. Current Biology, 28(5), 761-769.e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.053
Vun, V., Mahani, M., Lakim, M., Ampeng, A., & Md-Zain, B. (2011). Phylogenetic relationships of leaf monkeys (Presbytis; Colobinae) based on cytochrome b and 12S rRNA genes. Genetics and Molecular Research, 10(1), 368–381. https://doi.org/10.4238/vol10-1gmr1048
Wan-Azman, N. W. (2017). Diet and faecal analysis of selected primates from Bako National Park, Sarawak, Borneo. [Final Year Project Report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak].
Wan-Azman, N. W., Mazlan, S., Farhan, N., Wahab, M., Taib, A., A., Mali, S., & Khan, A. A. (2021). Silvered Langur (Trachypithecus cristatus) Survey in Sibuti Wildlife Sanctuary, Miri, Sarawak. Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation, 18, 243–250.
Wan-Azman, W. N. S., & Khan, F. A. A. (2022). Diet Analysis of Sympatric Colobine Monkeys from Bako National Park, Sarawak, Borneo. Borneo Journal of Resource Science and Technology, 12(1), 157–165. https://doi.org/10.33736/bjrst.4418.2022
Wesley, M. N. (2001). Activity budget of mother-infant pairs of semi-wild orangutans at Semenggoh Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre. [Final Year Project Report, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak]
Wich, S. A. (2012a). Hunting of Sumatran orang-utans and its importance in determining distribution and density. Biology Conservation, 146.
Wich, S. A., Gaveau, D., Abram, N. K., Ancrenaz, M., Baccini, A., Brend, S. A., Curran, L. M., Delgado, R. A., Erman, A., Fredriksson, G., Goossens, B., Husson, S., Lackman, I., Marshall, A. J., Naomi, A., Molidena, E., Nardiyono, Nurcahyo, A., Odom, K., . . . Meijaard, E. (2012b). Understanding the impacts of Land-Use policies on a threatened species: Is there a future for the Bornean orang-utan? PLOS ONE, 7(11), e49142. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0049142
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). (n.d.). Orang-utan conservation in Sarawak. WCS Malaysia. https://malaysia.wcs.org/Wildlife/Orang-utan-conservation-in-Sarawak.aspx
Wildlife Protection Ordinance. (1998). Law of Sarawak: Wild Life Protection Ordinance, 1998. Chapter 26. Kuching: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad. 25 pp
Yi, M. C. K., & Mohd-Azlan, J. (2018). Preliminary Analysis on The Hunting Activities in Selected Areas in Interior Sarawak. Malaysian Applied Biology, 47(1).
Yi, M. C. K., & Mohd-Azlan, J. (2020). Wildlife Hunting and Utilization in Ulu Baleh, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Ethnobiology Letters, 11(1), 76–84. https://doi.org/10.2307/26965304
Zahidin, M. A., Jalil, N. A., Naharuddin, N. M., Mohd-Ridwan, A. R., Gani, M., & Abdullah, M. T. (2019). Partial mtDNA sequencing data of vulnerable Cephalopachus bancanus from the Malaysian Borneo. Data in Brief, 25, 104133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2019.104133
Zhi, L., Karesh, W. B., Janczewski, D. N., Frazier-Taylor, H., Sajuthi, D., Gomber, F., Andau, M., Martenson, J. S. & O ‘Brien, S. J. (1996). Genomic differentiation among natural populations of orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus). Current Biology. 6(10), 1326-1336.
Zubaidah, S., Norsuhana, A. H., & Fatan, H. Y. (2012). Penggunaan haiwan bagi perubatan tradisional dalam kalangan masyarakat pribumi di Asia: satu ulasan (Animals-based traditional medicine amongst indigenous people in Asia: A review). Geografia, 8(3).
JWB applies the 